Alexander the Great: King of Macedonia,Alexander the Great: King of Macedonia

                                             

                                 BIOGRAPHY OF ALEXANDER

Alexander the Great stood at the head of theworld’s most feared army, using it to carve for himself a vast empire. He crushed the Persian Empire and then thrusthis way into Egypt and India to become the acknowledged king of kings. Then at the height of his power he was cutdown, leaving behind a legacy of heroism, divinity and tyranny.
                                                         
                                                               Early Years

The future Alexander the Great was born in Pella, Macedonia, the capital of Ancient Greece. Because the Greeks used a different calendarthan we do, we can’t say with certainty what his date of birth was. Most historians believe that he was born onJuly 20th, 356 BCE. He was the son of the king of Macedon, PhilipII and the principle one of his seven wives, Olympias of Epirus. As the son of the king, Alexander was raisedby a nurse. He had private tutors, with the first onebeing a relative by the name of Leonidas. This man was a strict teacher who demandeda high level of academic rigor of the young prince. Leonidas schooled Alexander in such subjectsas math, reading and languages. At around the age of seven, Alexander startedinstruction under one of his father’s generals, a man by the name of Lysimachus of Acarnania. His job was to teach the boy to behave likea noble. Alexander was taught to play the lyre as wellas to ride and hunt. Lysimachus also gave him instruction in fighting. When he was ten years old, Alexander’s fatherwas presented with a horse for sale by a trader. But the horse was wild and no one could mountit. Philip was about to dismiss the trader when,young Alexander stepped forward and said that he could tame the animal. The boy set himself to breaking the animalin and becoming its master.

 This was a dangerous task even for a grownman, but young Alexander showed impressive determination and perseverance to conquerthe horse. His father, the king, was so proud of hisson that he gave way to tears. He told his son . . .My boy, you must find a kingdom big enough for your ambitions. Macedon is too small for you", and boughtthe horse for him. Philip purchased the horse and gave it toAlexander. He named it Bucephalas, which means ox head. He rode the horse over most of his careerand it carried him into many battles. When Bucephalas died of old age at thirty,Alexander named a city after him. When he was thirteen, Alexander’s educationwas taken to a new level when Philip employed the greatest philosopher of the day, Aristotle,to tutor his son. The daily lessons were held at the templeof Nymphs at Mieza. Alexander lived there with other royal childrenin a privileged version of a boarding school. Some of the teenagers that Alexander associatedwith at that time would become his generals in later life. Aristotle provided instruction in religion,morals, philosophy, art and logic.

In appreciation for the education that hewas providing for his son, the king rebuilt Aristotle’s home town of Stageira, whichhe had previously destroyed. He also purchased every slave in the townand freed them. Rising to the ChallengeWhen he reached the age of sixteen, Alexander was handed a huge responsibility. His father had just declared war on Byzantiumand was about to lead his army to battle. He left the capital city of Macedon underthe control of Alexander. It was a huge display of trust on behalf ofthe king, but others soon took advantage. A group of European tribes known as the ThracianMaedi rose up in rebellion, under the impression that the kingdom was weakened under the teenageprince. But Alexander was up to the challenge. He sent his army in and the Thracians werequickly driven out of their territory. He had the area repopulated with Greeks andrenamed it as Alexandropolis. When King Philip returned from battle, hewas extremely impressed with the way that his son had dealt with the Thracian revolt.

He gave Alexander his own small army and thejob of stomping out any minor revolts that cropped up throughout the empire. Over the next three years, Alexander joinedhis father on a number of military campaigns to dominate Greek states. On one occasion, it was reported that Alexandersaved his father’s life during a campaign against the Greek state of Perinthus. They defeated the cities of Elatea and Amphissa. Then they came up against the united armiesof Athens and Thebes. The armies met during an epic battle nearChaeronea in Boeotia. Philip took the right wing of the army andput the left wing under Alexander, with Macedonia’s top generals having to answer to him. The Thebes and Athenians were defeated, givingPhilip control of the majority of the Greek states. He then set about uniting them in a Hellenicalliance. Family ChallengesHaving stamped his dominance on a largely united Greece, Philip set his sights on conqueringPersia. This time he left his son in control of ahugely expanded empire. When he returned, Philip added an extra wifeto his household. Her name was Cleopatra Eurydice.

This marriage put Alexander’s position asheir to the throne in danger. Cleopatra was a full Macedonian, while Alexanderwas only half Macedonian. This meant that, if Cleopatra had a son, thisone would supersede Alexander in the line of succession. During the wedding feast, Attalus, the uncleof Cleopatra, who was one of Phillip’s top generals, was heard to drunkenly request ofthe gods that the king and his new bride should quickly produce a son and heir. Alexander heard the plea and was not happy. He went up to the general and poured a drinkover his head, exclaiming . . . This so irritated Alexander, that throwingone of the cups at his head, "You villain," said he, "what, am I then a bastard?" Alexander felt abandoned by his father. After the wedding he and his mother left Macedonand headed for Epirus, where her mother’s brother, King Alexander I resided. Leaving his mother there, he continued onto Illyria, in the western part of the Balkan peninsula. He was welcomed as a visiting dignitary bythe Illyrian king. Back in Macedon, the King was saddened byhis son’s departure. He sent a messenger to persuade Alexanderto return. The reality was that Philip had never intendedto displace Alexander as heir. However, shortly after Alexander’s returnto Macedon, there was more tension between the two. Philip arranged for Alexander’s youngerbrother, Philip Arrhidaeus to marry. Alexander’s trouble-making friends persuadedhim that the king was again trying to cut him off from inheriting the throne. However, when Philip heard of the rumors,he angrily banished the troublemakers.

 King of MacedoniaIn October of 336 B.C.E, the Macedonian royal court was in Aegae for the wedding of AlexanderI of Epirus and Alexander’s sister Cleopatra of Macedon. Philip was assassinated by one of his bodyguardsas he entered into the town’s theater. The reasons for the assassination are unclear. But the result was very clear. Twenty-year older Alexander was now king ofMacedonia. Alexander was shaken by his father’s murder. He knew that plotters were intent on stealingthe throne out from under him. If he didn’t take decisive action, he toowould be dead. He began by having his cousin, Amyntas IV,put to death, along with a pair of Macedonian princes from Lycenistis. He also ordered the execution of Attalus,the uncle of his step-mother Cleopatra. His mother, Olympias, saw danger in the formof Cleopatra, the woman who had married Philip a few years earlier. She arranged for Cleopatra and the daughtershe’d had with Philip to be killed. She also poisoned others, leaving some ofthem mentally and physically disabled for life. Alexander was furious at his mother for poisoninghis half-sister, who he didn’t consider to be a threat to him at all. With the news that the stable, dominant rueof Philip had been replaced by his twenty-year-old son, a number of states were emboldened torise up in revolt. Recently conquered states, including Athensand Thessalonica attempted to reassert their independence.

 Despite his advisers urging a diplomatic response,Alexander was determined to stamp his dominance on the rebellious states. He personally led a force of 3000 soldiersto sort things out. In many cases, the uncooperative states resistanceevaporated at the sight of Alexander at the head of his army. Those who didn’t were put down swiftly. As he rode through the various states thathis father had united, Alexander was heaped with praise. His swift action had cemented his power andprovided a seamless transition from his father’s rule to his. Having put down a series of revolts, Alexanderwanted to ensure that there were no further uprisings. In his second year as king, he took his armyeast and defeated the Thracian people who had rebelled against him four years ago. He also conquered the Triballi tribe. By now Alexander’s Macedonian kingdom hadbecome so large that, if he went north to put down a rebellion, people in the southwould rise up.

Then when he went south, those in the northwould again rebel. What was needed was a show of dominance thatwould prevent further uprisings. With the northern states brought under control,Alexander took his army south. He went directly to Thebes, the only southernstate which had dared to rebel. Alexander was set to make an example of them. The city was completely destroyed. He then created a series of smaller citiesthat were populated with people from other areas. The Theban assault finally brought all ofGreece under Alexander’s dominion. He now set out to conquer Asia. To keep the home kingdom under control heput a general by the name of Antipater in charge with a sizeable army. Into AsiaIn 334 BCE, Alexander marched a 40,000 strong army out of Macedonia. He was focused on talking possession of theentire Persian Empire, which he considered to be a personal gift to him from the Gods. Unlike his father, Alexander was never interestedin achieving diplomatic negotiations.

 He was all about taking what he wanted byforce of arms. The first resistance that the Macedonian armyfound as they swept into Persia was at the Battle of Granicus River. This river was a formidable obstacle thatthe Greek army would have to cross. The Persians, under Memnon of Rhodes, positionedthemselves around the river to await the arrival of the enemy. Their strength was a little over half thatof the Greeks. Alexander led his army into a direct frontalattack using a classic wedge-shaped assault. They drove into the middle of he Persian line. In the melee that followed, it was reportedthat Alexander personally killed several Persians. He was almost felled with an axe blow butwas able to recover and save himself. The superior numbers of the Greeks, combinedwith this use of the lance to counter the javelin attacks of the Persians, eventuallywon the day. The Persians were routed and chased from thefield. Total Persian casualties were around 4,000with Alexander’s army having lost a tenth of that number. There had been about 18,000 Greek mercenarieswho had fought for the Persians in this battle.

 They were captured by the Greek army. Alexander considered these men to be traitorsto their country and deserving of no mercy. He had half of them executed and the resttaken as slaves. Following this victory, Alexander took possessionof Sardis, the provincial capital of the kingdom of Lydia. He then travelled down the Ionian coast. Most towns welcomed him as a conqueror andhe duly declared that were free of their Persian overlords and able to rule themselves as autonomousstates. As he moved down the coast, the Persian navywas constantly trying to engage Alexander in battle. However, he resisted, preferring to fighton land. Moving south, Alexander came to Halicarnassuswhere he engaged in his first full scale siege operation. The Persian fleet had sailed to the port ofHalicarnassus where it set up its base. Prior to Alexander’s arrival the Queen ofHalicarnassus, Ada of Caria had been driven from the city and replaced by a satrap namedOrontobates. Ada set herself up in the fortress of Alinda. When Alexander rode in, she surrendered thefort to him. The defenders of the city of Halicarnassusnow set up to defend the city. Still, Alexander’s army managed to breakthrough the city walls. However, they were driven back by the catapultsfrom within the city.

 A renewed assault overcame this peril andstormed through a second time. Memnon of Rhodes, who was in defense of thecity after having evaded capture at Granicus River, set the city on fire before retreating. The Persian fleet also withdrew. Alexander formally returned the city to QueenAda. In return she adopted him as a son, thereforemaking sure that the city would pass to him on her death. The Gordian KnotControl of Halicarnassus and the coastal cities meant that the Persians could no longer docktheir fleet. Continuing on his conquest, Alexander arrivedat the Phrygian capital of Gordium. It was here that, according to Greek legend,he was taken before a famed oxcart which was tied with an incredibly complicated rope knot,known as the Gordian knot. It was said that whoever could undo the knotwould become the ruler of Asia. Alexander is said to have examined the knotclosely.

Then, having no idea of how to undo it, hepulled out his sword and cut the rope in half with a single stroke. We don’t know whether the story is true,but it sure makes a good tale! Continuing south, Alexander’s army encountered,for the first time, a more formidable army than his own. It was under the leadership of Darius III,king of the Achaemenid empire of Persia. Despite being outnumbered, Alexander’s tacticalskill and personal bravery in leading from the front won the day. Darius was completely overwhelmed by the loss. He took to his heels, leaving behind his army,a great treasure and all of his kingdom. Alexander claimed it all. Siege of TyreWith the absolute dominance of Alexander’s Greek army over the Persians, bordering nationsbegan to panic. The all-conquering warrior king had developedan aura of invincibility and many nations simple acceded to him as he entered theirterritory.

 By 332 he had taken Syria and the coastalLevant. He then set about taking Tyre, which was acoastal island base sitting about a mile out in the Mediterranean Sea. Conquering the island would be a great challengeto Alexander, with the combination of the sea and the high walls that surrounded theisland leaving him with few options. For seven months, Alexander blockaded theisland, preventing either entry or exit. He then had his army build a causeway outof rocks to allow them to get to the city walls. When the city walls were eventually breached,Alexander was so angry with the extended Tyrian holdout that, according to contemporary historianArrian of Nicomedia, he ordered the massacre of up to 8,000 citizens. Following the taking of Tyre, most of thecities on Alexander’s campaign route surrendered without putting up any resistance. The only city that stood firm as he woundhis way toward Egypt was Gaza. As this city sat atop a hill, it looked asif Alexander was in for another protracted siege. Yet this was one siege that seemed like animpossibility. The walls were, according to Alexander’sengineers, too high and too thick to be penetrated. For, Alexander this was just the sort of challengethat got his juices flowing. He became even more determined to conquerthe city. He was convinced that destiny would find away.

The Greek army made three desperate attemptsto breach the walls. Eventually, on the final attempt they madethe breakthrough. But the cost was terrific, with thousandsof men falling to the missiles of the enemy. Alexander himself suffered a serious shoulderwound. Once the city was taken, severe punishmentwas exacted upon the inhabitants, with the men being slaughtered and the women and childrensold into slavery. When the all-conquering Greek army approachedthe holy Jewish city of Jerusalem, the Jews threw open the gates and welcomed them intotheir midst. It was reported that Alexander was taken intothe Great Temple of Solomon and shown a prophetic text from the Book of Daniel that referredto him as a mighty king who would conquer the land. Alexander left Jerusalem in peace, and headedsouth to lay claim to Egypt. In that land he was welcomed as a liberator. The people proclaimed him to be a son of theGods and gave him reverence on the same level as their own pharaoh. He founded the city of Alexandria, which wouldbecome a major trading center in future times. Conquest of BabylonLeaving Egypt, Alexander travelled back north as he set his sights on taking Babylon, thePersian capital where King Darius had positioned himself. Alexander marched with 47,000, but Dariushad amassed a massive army, which some historians have put at one million men.

The two armies met near the village of Gaugamela. At the forefront of his lines, Darius placedchariots armed with scythes and fifteen elephants in an attempt to mow through the Greek lines. In response, Alexander placed his light troopsup front to negate the effect of the chariots with missiles directed at their horses. Those chariots that made it to the Greek linewere allowed to pass harmlessly through where they were surrounded and captured. Darius himself was in a scythe armed chariotbut when his charioteer was felled by a javelin he jumped from the chariot, mounted a horseand fled. Seeing this, many of his men followed suit. Panic ensued and the battle was over. Following the conquest of Babylon, Alexandermoved on to Susa, and then to the Persian city of Persepolis. He then determined to hunt down and kill Darius,the disgraced Persian king in order to prevent any further reprisals. He finally found Darius, but he had alreadybeen killed. One of his most trusted men, Bessus, had killedhim and now claimed his throne for himself. Alexander now set his sights on tracking downBessus, who had fled into central Asia. Alexander explored much of Asia. He found a number of cities, naming each ofthem in his own honor, Eventually Bessus was betrayed by his own men and handed over forexecution.

 On his return to Persia, Alexander was hailedas the King of Kings. He began to adopt Persian habits, includingdressing in Persian clothing and following Persian customs. This was troubling to many Greeks, includingsome of his generals. By now, Alexander had been away from Macedonfor many years. He had left Antipater as the military rulerof the city and he had effectively maintained the peace. However, Alexander was obstinately requestingtroop reinforcements, which made the defenses of the city weaker. IndiaAlexander now set his sights on conquering the Indian subcontinent. He sent delegates ahead of him to demand thatthe Indian leaders submit to him. Some of the clans acquiesced but others didnot. These clans would be furiously attacked byAlexander’s army. Complete villages were burned to the groundand people were killed with impunity. The Greek army met their strongest resistanceat the hands of King Porus of the Punjab region. The Indian forces were defeated in battle,but Alexander was so impressed with the tactics and bravery of Porus that he offered a co-rulershipto him.

 While Alexander would control the land, hewould hand the day to day running of the Punjab to Porus. By now Alexander had conquered more territorythan any other ruler in history. But he was still not satisfied. He wanted to advance even deeper into theIndian subcontinent. But his army did not. They had had enough. The soldiers revolted, refusing to advanceany further. The generals sided with them, with one ofthem, General Coenus telling Alexander that the men. . .longed to again see their parents, their wives, their children, their homeland. Alexander sympathized and decided that itwas time to go home. But he continued to conquer villages and claimmore land on his return route. In order to placate his men, he sent olderand disabled soldiers directly back to Macedonia. But this act backfired. The men thought that they were all going directlyhome. When Alexander marched then on further conquests,there was much anger. The men of his army began to openly criticizeAlexander. They were especially unhappy with his adoptionof Persian customs and the appointing of Persian officers to command them. In an attempt to win favor, Alexander ensuredthat Macedonian troops were ruled over by Macedonian officers. He also held a huge banquet for his men tocelebrate the years of victory.

After returning to Persia, Alexander establishedhimself in the great palace of Nebuchadnezzar in Babylon. He planned further campaigns of conquest intoArabia. But these would never come to pass. Struck DownAlexander died suddenly on either June 10th or 11th, 332 BCE. The cause of his death is unclear, with therebeing two main theories. They both involve the excess use of alcohol. In one account he developing a fever aftera 24-hour drinking binge. In the other, he became sick after drinkinga bowl of unmixed wine. There was also talk of poisoning. The death of the king of kings at the heightof his power was a huge shock to the entire world. People could not believe that such a strong,dynamic and heroic individual could be struck down without warning. Alexander’s body was placed in a gold sarcophagus. After much disputing he was laid to rest inAlexandria. Over the centuries many famous leaders cameto pay respects. But his body was not left in peace. It is said that Roman emperor Augustus accidentallydamaged the corpse and Caligula stole Alexander’s breastplate. Such incidents prompted Emperor SeptimiusSeveris to close the tomb to the public in 200 CE. Where it was taken is unknown. Today, the location of Alexander’s tombis one of the great mysteries of history.